Description
Tropical cyclones are a major threat to life and property, even in the formative stages of their development. They include a number of different hazards that individually can cause significant impacts, such as extreme winds, storm surge, flooding, tornadoes, and lightning. Tropical Cyclones: Observations and Basic Processes provides a modern overview of the theory and observations of tropical cyclone structure and behavior.
The book begins by summarizing key observations of the structure, evolution, and formation of tropical cyclones. It goes on to develop a theoretical foundation for a basic understanding of tropical cyclone behavior during the storm’s life cycle. Horizontally two-dimensional dynamics of vortex motion and other non-axisymmetric features are considered first before tackling the axisymmetric balance dynamics involving the overturning circulation. Following a review of moist convective processes, later chapters focus mainly on a range of three-dimensional aspects of the tropical cyclone life cycle. Building from first principles, the book provides a state-of-the-art summary of the fundamentals of tropical cyclones aimed at advanced undergraduates, graduate students, tropical meteorologists, and researchers.
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Table of contents
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Cover image
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Title page
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Table of Contents
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Copyright
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Dedication
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Epigraph
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Preface
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References
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Acknowledgments
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Nomenclature
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Chapter 1: Observations of tropical cyclones
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Abstract
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1.1. Tropical-cyclone tracks
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1.2. Structure
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1.3. Surface heat and moisture supply
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1.4. Ocean interaction
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1.5. Tropical cyclone genesis
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1.6. Synthesis
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References
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Chapter 2: Fluid dynamics and moist thermodynamics
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Abstract
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2.1. The equations of motion
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2.2. Buoyancy and perturbation pressure
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2.3. Thermodynamics
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2.4. Prognostic and diagnostic equations
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2.5. Moist processes
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2.6. Viscosity, diffusion, friction, and turbulence
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2.7. Methods of solution
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2.8. Kinetic energy and total energy
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2.9. Vorticity and the vorticity equation
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2.10. Vorticity-streamfunction method
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2.11. Circulation
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2.12. Potential vorticity
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2.13. Balance dynamics
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2.14. PV global constraints
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2.15. PV flux form and impermeability theorem
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2.16. Vorticity flux equation
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2.17. Coordinate systems
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2.18. Exercises
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2.19. Appendix: the membrane analogy
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References
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Chapter 3: Tropical cyclone motion
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Abstract
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3.1. The observations to be explained
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3.2. The partitioning problem
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3.3. Prototype problems
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3.4. Observations of the β-gyres
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3.5. Exercises
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3.6. Appendices
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References
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Chapter 4: Vortex axisymmetrization, waves and wave-vortex interaction
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Abstract
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4.1. Illustration of flow asymmetries
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4.2. Vortex merger and separation, Fujiwhara effect
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4.3. The pseudo-mode
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4.4. Vortex shear waves and vortex Rossby waves
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4.5. Wave-vortex interaction
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4.6. Synthesis
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4.7. Enrichment topics
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4.8. Exercises
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References
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Chapter 5: Axisymmetric vortex theory fundamentals
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Abstract
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5.1. Equations of motion in rotating cylindrical polar coordinates
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5.2. The primary circulation
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5.3. Interpretation of the thermal wind equation
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5.4. Generalized buoyancy
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5.5. The tropical cyclone eye
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5.6. Spin up of the primary circulation
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5.7. Stability
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5.8. Scale analysis
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5.9. The secondary circulation
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5.10. Solutions of the Eliassen equation
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5.11. Representation of the diabatic heating rate, θ˙
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5.12. Buoyancy relative to a balanced vortex
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5.13. Enrichment topics
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References
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Chapter 6: Frictional effects
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Abstract
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6.1. Vortex spin down
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6.2. Scale analysis of the equations with friction
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6.3. The Ekman layer
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6.4. The linear approximation
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6.5. A nonlinear slab boundary layer model
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6.6. The boundary-layer spin up enhancement mechanism
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6.7. Limitations of the two boundary layer models
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6.8. Importance of the tropical cyclone boundary layer
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6.9. Appendices
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References
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Chapter 7: Estimating boundary layer parameters
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Abstract
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7.1. Boundary layer structure, supergradient winds
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7.2. Subgrid-scale parameterizations
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7.3. Vertical diffusivity in the boundary layer
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7.4. Horizontal diffusivity in the boundary layer
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7.5. Air-sea interaction, drag coefficient, enthalpy coefficient
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References
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Chapter 8: A prognostic balance theory for vortex evolution
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Abstract
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8.1. Solutions for the evolution of a balanced vortex
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8.2. Interpretation: the classical spin up mechanism
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8.3. Rotational stiffness, latitude dependence and vortex size evolution
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8.4. Interplay between diabatic heating and friction
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8.5. Appendix
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References
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Chapter 9: Moist convection
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Abstract
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9.1. Convective instability
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9.2. Aerological diagrams
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9.3. Types of penetrative convection
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9.4. Understanding the effects of deep convection on the tropical circulation
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9.5. Buoyancy in a finite horizontal domain
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9.6. Quantification of effective buoyancy
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9.7. Implications for CAPE
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9.8. More on CAPE
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9.9. Cloud structure in tropical cyclones
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9.10. Exercises
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9.11. Appendices
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References
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Chapter 10: Tropical cyclone formation and intensification
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Abstract
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10.1. The prototype problem for genesis and intensification
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10.2. A simplified numerical model experiment
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10.3. The numerical simulation
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10.4. Moist instability and θe
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10.5. Azimuthal mean view of vortex evolution
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10.6. Modified view of spin up
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10.7. A system-averaged perspective
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10.8. Predictability issues
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10.9. Inclusion of ice processes
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10.10. Vortex evolution with and without ice
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10.11. Moist instability and θe
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10.12. An azimuthal mean view of vortex evolution
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10.13. Mid-level vortex development with ice microphysics
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10.14. Boundary layer control
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10.15. Towards a conceptual model for tropical cyclogenesis
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References
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Chapter 11: The rotating-convection paradigm
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Abstract
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11.1. Flux form of the vorticity equation
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11.2. Axisymmetric flow
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11.3. Non-axisymmetric flow
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11.4. Azimuthally-averaged tangential and radial wind tendency
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11.5. Applications to a numerical model simulation
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11.6. Other features of the numerical simulation
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11.7. Summary of the rotating-convection paradigm
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References
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Chapter 12: Emanuel’s intensification theories
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Abstract
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12.1. The intensification theories
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12.2. The air-sea interaction intensification theory, WISHE
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12.3. The E12 theory
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12.4. A boundary layer explanation for spin up
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12.5. Congruence of M and θe⁎ surfaces during spin up?
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12.6. Appraisal of the Emanuel intensification theories
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12.7. Relevance to hurricanes in a warmer world?
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12.8. Appendix: derivation of ∂vm/∂τ in the E12 theory, Eq. (12.4)
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References
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Chapter 13: Emanuel’s maximum intensity theory
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Abstract
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13.1. The E86 steady-state model
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13.2. Unbalanced effects
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13.3. A revised theory
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13.4. Three dimensional effects
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13.5. Summary of Emanuel’s steady-state PI theories
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13.6. Appendix A: Derivation of an extended PI model, Eq. (13.7)
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13.7. Appendix B: Construction of E86 steady-state hurricane solution
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13.8. Exercises
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References
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Chapter 14: Global budgets and steady state considerations
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Abstract
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14.1. The numerical simulation
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14.2. Budget calculations
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14.3. Role of surface enthalpy fluxes
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14.4. Absolute angular momentum budget
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14.5. Exercises
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14.6. Global steady-state requirements
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References
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Chapter 15: Tropical cyclone life cycle
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Abstract
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15.1. Newtonian cooling
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15.2. Life cycle metrics
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15.3. Vortex asymmetries
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15.4. Azimuthally-averaged view of vortex evolution
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15.5. Interpretations of the life cycle
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15.6. Life cycle summary
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References
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Chapter 16: Applications of the rotating-convection paradigm
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Abstract
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16.1. Minimal conceptual models for vortex intensification
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16.2. Comparison between three-dimensional and axisymmetric tropical cyclone dynamics
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16.3. The effects of latitude on tropical cyclone intensification
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16.4. The effects of sea surface temperature on intensification
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16.5. The effects of initial vortex size on genesis and intensification
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16.6. Tropical cyclogenesis at and near the Equator
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16.7. Observational tests of the rotating-convection paradigm
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16.8. Tropical lows over land
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16.9. Polar lows, medicanes and tropical cyclones
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16.10. The rotating-convection paradigm in the research of others
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16.11. Vertical shear regimes
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References
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Chapter 17: Epilogue
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Abstract
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17.1. Examples of recent events
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17.2. Applications and future directions
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References
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References
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References
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Index
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